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Credit: Dicklyon/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 The processes that form continental crust from the denser basaltic rocks of the upper mantle may make the lower lithosphere denser than the ...

A new Yale-led study suggests that Earth’s early atmosphere hosted a battle royale between iodine and oxygen — effectively delaying the creation of a stable ozone layer that would shield complex life ...

The interactions of these processes in the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere characterize the Earth’s environment as a dynamic, interactive system. The courses in this concentration ...

The layers can also be categorized into the rigid outer lithosphere (which includes the crust and top portion of the mantle and makes up Earth's tectonic plates) and the athenosphere, the portion ...